Financial Accounting — Inventory, Long-term Assets & Liabilities(财务会计——存货、长期资产与负债)


1. Inventory & COGS(存货与销货成本)

1.1 Inventory–COGS Relationship(存货与销货成本的关系)

  • Core idea / 核心思想:All product costs must end up as either Ending Inventory or COGS(所有产品成本最终要么变成期末存货,要么变成销货成本)。

  • Equations / 公式关系:

    • Goods Available for Sale = Beginning Inventory + Purchases(可供销售商品 = 期初存货 + 本期进货)
    • COGS = Goods Available for Sale − Ending Inventory(销货成本 = 可供销售商品 − 期末存货)
  • B/S & I/S link / 报表连接:

    • Ending Inventory → Balance Sheet, current asset(期末存货在资产负债表列示为流动资产)
    • COGS → Income Statement, expense(销货成本在损益表列示为费用)
  • Direction / 方向关系:

    • Higher EI → Lower COGS → Higher gross profit & net income(期末存货高 → 销货成本低 → 毛利和净利高)
    • Lower EI → Higher COGS → Lower profit(期末存货低 → 销货成本高 → 利润低)

1.2 Periodic vs Perpetual Inventory System(定期盘存制 vs 永续盘存制)

  • Periodic system / 定期制:

    • Records purchases in Purchases account(进货记入“进货”账户)
    • No continuous inventory record(期间不连续记录库存数量和成本)
    • EI measured by physical count at period end(期末通过盘点确定期末存货)
    • COGS computed at end as residual(销货成本期末由公式“BI + Purchases − EI”计算得出)
  • Perpetual system / 永续制:

    • All purchases debited to Inventory(所有进货直接借记“存货”账户)
    • Every sale updates Inventory and COGS immediately(每笔销售即时更新存货与销货成本)
    • Allows real-time inventory quantities and costs(可以实时查看数量与成本)
    • Better internal control and shrinkage detection(更利于内部控制和识别损耗)
  • Exam tips / 考试提醒:

    • 定期制题目要在期末用公式算 COGS;永续制题目会要求每次销售记录分录。

1.3 Cost Flow Assumptions(成本流假设)

  • Purpose / 目的:Assign cost to EI and COGS when units are identical(在单位相同情况下,将成本分配给期末存货与销货成本)。

  • Specific Identification / 个别计价法:

    • Track actual cost of each item(逐件追踪实际成本)
    • Used for unique, high-value items like cars, jewelry(用于高价或独特商品,如汽车、珠宝)。
  • FIFO(First-in, First-out 先进先出):

    • Earliest costs to COGS, latest costs to EI(最早购入的成本先计入销货成本,最近购入成本留在期末存货)
    • In rising prices, FIFO → lower COGS, higher EI & profit(价格上升时,FIFO 产生较低 COGS、较高存货与利润)。
  • LIFO(Last-in, First-out 后进先出):

    • Latest costs to COGS, earliest costs to EI(最近购入成本先进入 COGS,早期成本留在 EI)
    • In rising prices, LIFO → higher COGS, lower EI, lower profit, lower tax(价格上升时,LIFO COGS 高,利润和所得税低)。
  • Weighted Average / 平均成本法:

    • Use average unit cost = total cost / total units(平均单位成本 = 总成本 ÷ 总数量)
    • Smooths profit fluctuations(平滑利润波动)。

1.4 Goods in Transit(在途商品)

  • Key question / 关键问题:At year-end, who owns goods still on the truck?(年末仍在运输途中的货物由谁确认存货?)

  • FOB Shipping Point / 离岸价装运点:

    • Ownership transfers when goods are shipped(一发货所有权即转移)
    • Buyer records inventory in transit; seller removes inventory(买方记存货,在途货物属于买方;卖方停止确认存货)。
  • FOB Destination / 到岸价目的地:

    • Ownership transfers when goods arrive at buyer(货物到达买方地点时所有权才转移)
    • Seller keeps inventory until delivery(在运输途中由卖方继续确认存货)。
  • Exam pitfall / 易错点:

    • 在算期末存货时必须把属于本公司的在途商品加回。

1.5 Lower of Cost or Market / NRV(成本与市价孰低法)

  • Conservatism / 谨慎性:Do not overstate assets or income(不要高估资产或利润)。

  • Basic rule / 基本规则:Inventory is measured at lower of cost or market / NRV(存货按成本与市价或可变现净值孰低计量)。

  • “Market” under GAAP / GAAP 下“市价”:

    • Replacement cost(重置成本)
    • Limited by Ceiling = NRV(上限为可变现净值)
    • Floor = NRV − normal profit margin(下限为可变现净值减正常利润)。
  • Write-down entry / 跌价分录:

    • Dr Loss on Inventory Write-down(借:存货跌价损失)
    • Cr Inventory or Allowance(贷:存货或跌价准备)。
  • FS effects / 报表影响:

    • B/S:Inventory ↓,Total assets ↓(存货与总资产减少)
    • I/S:Expense ↑,Net income ↓(费用增加,净利减少)
    • Cash flow:non-cash expense(非现金费用,不影响经营现金流)

2. Long-term Assets(长期资产)

2.1 Classification of Long-lived Assets(长期资产分类)

  • Tangible assets / 有形资产:Buildings, machinery, equipment, land(建筑、机器、设备、土地)。

  • Intangible assets / 无形资产:Patents, copyrights, trademarks, goodwill, software(专利、版权、商标、商誉、软件等)。

  • Finite vs indefinite life / 有限寿命与无限寿命:

    • Finite tangible → depreciation(有形有限寿命资产折旧)
    • Finite intangible → amortization(无形有限寿命资产摊销)
    • Indefinite intangible → no amortization, impairment only(无限寿命无形资产不摊销,只减值)。

2.2 Initial Acquisition & Capitalization(初始购置与资本化)

  • Capitalization rule / 资本化原则:

    • Include all necessary costs to acquire asset and prepare it for intended use(包括为获取并使资产达到预定可使用状态所发生的所有必要成本)。
  • Examples of capitalized costs / 可资本化成本示例:

    • Purchase price net of discounts(扣除折扣后的购买价)
    • Transportation & insurance during transit(运输与在途保险)
    • Installation & testing costs(安装、调试费用)
    • Legal and registration fees for intangibles(无形资产相关法律与登记费用)
  • Costs to expense immediately / 需费用化的成本:

    • Routine repairs during normal use(正常使用中的日常维护)
    • Abnormal wastage or repair due to damage(异常损失或事故修理)。

2.3 Subsequent Expenditures(后续支出:资本化或费用化)

  • Capitalize / 资本化的条件:

    • Increases future economic benefits(提高未来经济利益)
    • Extends useful life, increases capacity, or improves efficiency(延长寿命、提高产能或效率)。
  • Expense / 费用化:

    • Ordinary repairs and maintenance(普通维护)
    • Does not change capacity or useful life(不改变产能或寿命)。
  • Examples / 例子:

    • Replace engine of truck → capitalize(更换发动机)
    • Oil change, cleaning → expense(换机油、清洗)。

2.4 Depreciation of Tangible Assets(有形资产折旧)

  • Purpose / 目的:Systematically allocate cost over useful life, not value decline(系统分摊成本,而非反映市价)。

  • Inputs / 关键估计:Acquisition cost, estimated useful life, estimated residual value(取得成本、预计寿命、预计残值)。

  • Methods / 方法:

    • Straight-line(直线法):Equal depreciation per year(每年折旧额相同)
    • Units-of-production(产量法):Depreciation based on usage(按实际产量或使用量分摊)
    • Accelerated methods(加速折旧,如双倍余额递减法):Higher expense in early years(前期折旧多,后期少)。
  • Effects / 影响:

    • Higher depreciation → lower current profit but lower tax(折旧越高,当期利润越低,所得税越少)
    • Method choice affects earnings pattern(折旧方法选择会改变利润时间分布)。

2.5 Amortization & Intangible Assets(无形资产摊销)

  • Finite-life intangible / 有限寿命无形资产:

    • Amortize over useful life(在使用年限内摊销)
    • Typically straight-line(通常使用直线法)。
  • Indefinite-life intangible / 无限寿命无形资产:

    • No amortization(不摊销)
    • Annual impairment test required(必须每年做减值测试)。
  • Goodwill / 商誉:

    • Only arises in business combinations(仅在企业合并中产生)
    • Never amortized, only impairment tested(不摊销,仅减值)。

2.6 Impairment of Long-term Assets(长期资产减值)

  • Triggering events / 触发条件:

    • Market price drop, negative changes in technology, markets, legal or economic environment(市价大幅下跌、技术落后、市场或法规变化)
    • Internal evidence like worse-than-expected performance(内部经营表现显著恶化)。
  • Recoverable amount / 可收回金额:

    • FVLCOD = Fair value less costs of disposal(公允价值减处置成本)
    • VIU = Value in use, present value of future cash flows(使用价值:未来现金流现值)
    • Recoverable amount = higher of FVLCOD and VIU(取二者较高者)。
  • Impairment test logic / 减值测试逻辑:

    • If carrying amount > recoverable amount → asset is impaired(若账面价值大于可收回金额 → 发生减值)
    • New carrying amount = recoverable amount(新的账面价值为可收回金额)
    • Impairment loss = difference(减值损失为差额)。
  • Accounting effects / 会计影响:

    • Dr Impairment Loss(借:减值损失)
    • Cr Asset / Accumulated Impairment(贷:资产或减值准备)
    • B/S:assets 下调,I/S:利润下降,Cash flow:无现金影响。

2.7 Disposal of Long-term Assets(长期资产处置)

  • Step 1 / 第一步:Update depreciation and NBV to disposal date(截至处置日计提折旧并确认最新账面价值)。

  • Step 2 / 第二步:Record sale and gain/loss(记录出售和损益)。

  • Gain or loss formula / 损益计算公式:

    • Gain or loss = Cash (or proceeds) − NBV(出售损益 = 收到的价款 − 账面价值)。
  • Journal entry pattern / 常见分录结构:

    • Dr Cash(借:现金)
    • Dr Accumulated Depreciation(借:累计折旧)
    • Cr Asset cost(贷:资产成本)
    • Cr Gain on disposal / Dr Loss on disposal(贷:处置收益 / 借:处置损失)。

3. Liabilities(负债)

3.1 Current Liabilities(流动负债)

  • Definition / 定义:Obligations due within one year or operating cycle(一年或营业周期内到期需偿还的债务)。

  • Examples / 例子:Accounts payable, wages payable, short-term notes, current portion of long-term debt(应付账款、应付工资、短期票据、长期债务一年内到期部分)。

  • Liquidity metrics / 流动性指标:

    • Current ratio = Current assets ÷ Current liabilities(流动比率)
    • Working capital = Current assets − Current liabilities(营运资本)。

3.2 Long-term Liabilities(长期负债)

  • Definition / 定义:Obligations due beyond one year(到期日超过一年的债务)。

  • Examples / 例子:Long-term notes payable, bonds payable, long-term leases(长期应付票据、应付债券、长期租赁负债)。

  • Interest calculation / 利息计算:

    • Interest = Beginning outstanding principal × interest rate × time(利息 = 期初本金 × 利率 × 期间比例)。
  • Effective interest method / 有效利率法:

    • Interest expense based on carrying amount × market rate(利息费用 = 期初账面价值 × 市场利率)
    • Difference between interest expense and cash paid adjusts carrying amount(利息费用与支付利息差额调整债券账面价值)。

3.3 Contingent Liabilities(或有负债)

  • Nature / 本质:Potential obligations dependent on future events(取决未来事件的潜在负债)。

  • Decision matrix / 判断矩阵:

    • Probable & amount can be estimated(很可能且金额可估计) → Record liability & expense(确认负债与费用)
    • Probable but cannot be estimated(很可能但金额难估) → Disclose in notes(附注披露)
    • Reasonably possible(合理可能) → Notes disclosure only(仅附注披露)
    • Remote(可能性极小) → No action(无需处理)。
  • Typical examples / 常见例子:Pending lawsuits, product warranties, guarantees(待决诉讼、产品保修、担保)。

3.4 Time Value of Money(货币时间价值)

  • Key concept / 关键思想:Money today is worth more than the same amount in the future because it can earn interest(今天的一元比未来的一元值钱,因为可以赚利息)。

  • Present value(现值):Discount future cash flows back to today(将未来现金折为今日价值)。

  • Future value(终值):Accumulate today’s money with interest into the future(将今天的钱连本带利滚到未来)。

  • Single amount vs annuity / 单笔 vs 年金:

    • Single amount:one-time cash flow(单笔现金流)
    • Annuity:series of equal payments at regular intervals(等额定期系列现金流)。

3.5 Bond Valuation(债券估值)

  • Components / 组成:

    • Interest payments (coupon) each period(每期票面利息)
    • Principal repayment at maturity(到期偿还本金)。
  • Pricing rule / 定价原则:

    • Bond price = PV of interest annuity + PV of principal single amount(债券价格 = 利息年金现值 + 本金一次性现值)。
  • Discount vs premium / 折价与溢价:

    • Market rate > stated rate → bond sells at discount(市场利率大于票面利率 → 折价)
    • Market rate < stated rate → bond sells at premium(市场利率小于票面利率 → 溢价)。
  • Example summary / 例题简要:

    • Face value 1,250, coupon 4.7%, market rate 10%, 5 years → use PV tables to discount five interest payments of 59 and one principal repayment of 1,250, total ≈ 1,000(面值 1,250、票面 4.7%、有效利率 10%、5 年期 → 折现后债券价格约 1,000,属于折价购买)。