Aggregate Demand & Aggregate Supply — AD–AS Model (总需求与总供给模型)


1. Aggregate Demand (AD) and Its Determinants(总需求及其决定因素)

1.1 Definition & Curve Shape(定义与曲线形状)

  • AD shows the total quantity of real GDP demanded at each overall price level. (总需求表示在每一总体物价水平下,整个经济中被需求的实际 GDP 数量。)
  • Downward sloping due to wealth effect, interest-rate effect, and net-export effect. (AD 曲线向右下倾斜,原因是财富效应、利率效应和净出口效应。)

1.2 Components of AD: C + I + G + NX(AD 的四个组成部分)

  • Consumption (C): household spending on goods and services. (消费:家庭对商品与服务的支出。)
  • Investment (I): firms’ spending on factories, equipment, housing, inventories. (投资:企业对工厂、设备、住房和存货的支出。)
  • Government purchases (G): all levels of government buying goods and services. (政府购买:各级政府购买的商品与服务。)
  • Net exports (NX): exports − imports. (净出口:出口减进口。)

1.3 Factors That Shift AD(使 AD 曲线移动的因素)

  • Fiscal policy:

    • ↑G or ↓T → AD shifts right (expansionary).
    • ↓G or ↑T → AD shifts left (contractionary). (财政政策:增 G/减税 → AD 右移;减 G/加税 → AD 左移。)
  • Monetary/financial conditions:

    • Lower interest rates → I 和部分 C 增加 → AD 右移。
    • Higher interest rates → I 和部分 C 减少 → AD 左移。
  • Expectations and confidence: optimism about future income or profits raises C and I → AD right; pessimism → AD left. (对未来收入或盈利乐观 → C、I 上升 → AD 右移;悲观则反向。)

  • Foreign sector:

    • Faster income growth abroad → exports ↑ → NX ↑ → AD 右移。
    • Home currency appreciation (higher exchange rate) → exports ↓, imports ↑ → NX ↓ → AD 左移。

1.4 Price Level Change vs. AD Shift(价格水平变化 vs AD 曲线平移)

  • A change in the price level itself causes movement along the AD curve, not a shift. (物价水平本身的变化只会导致沿曲线移动,不会让 AD 曲线平移。)

  • Practice links:

    • Price level ↑ → move up along AD → real GDP demanded ↓. (物价上升 → 沿 AD 向上移动 → 实际 GDP 需求量下降。)
    • Non-price factors (G、T、i、NX等) 变化 → 整条 AD 曲线右移或左移。

1.5 Practice Mapping: Question List → AD Effects(练习题目与 AD 效应对应)

  • Increase in the price level → movement along AD, quantity of AD ↓. (物价上升 → 沿曲线移动,需求量下降。)
  • Increase in government purchases → AD shift right. (政府购买增加 → AD 右移。)
  • Higher income taxes → AD shift left via lower C. (所得税提高 → C 减少 → AD 左移。)
  • Higher interest rates → AD shift left via lower I and C. (利率升高 → I、C 减少 → AD 左移。)
  • Faster income growth in other countries → AD shift right via higher NX. (其他国家收入更快增长 → 净出口增加 → AD 右移。)
  • Higher exchange rate (domestic currency appreciation) → AD shift left via lower NX. (本币升值 → 净出口下降 → AD 左移。)

1.6 Graph Skills: Movement vs. Shift on AD(图形技巧:AD 的点移动与曲线平移)

  • A → B on same AD: caused only by a change in price level. (同一条 AD 上 A→B:仅由价格水平变化引起。)
  • A → C to a new AD curve (AD₁ → AD₂): caused by change in C, I, G or NX. (从 A 到另一条 AD 曲线上的 C 点:由 C、I、G 或 NX 的变化导致 AD 平移。)

2. Short-Run Aggregate Supply (SRAS)(短期总供给)

2.1 SRAS Definition & Shape(定义与形状)

  • SRAS shows quantity of real GDP supplied at each price level in the short run, when some wages/prices are sticky. (短期总供给表示在工资和部分价格尚未完全调整时,各物价水平下企业愿意提供的实际 GDP 数量。)
  • Upward sloping because higher prices with sticky costs → profits ↑ → output ↑. (曲线向右上倾斜:在成本暂时不变时,价格越高,利润越高,企业愿意生产更多。)

2.2 Cost & Expectation Determinants of SRAS(成本与预期决定因素)

  • Productivity ↑ → unit cost ↓ → SRAS shifts right. (生产率提高 → 单位成本下降 → SRAS 右移。)

  • Labor force or capital stock ↑ → capacity ↑ → SRAS (and LRAS) shift right. (劳动力或资本存量增加 → 产能提升 → SRAS 与 LRAS 右移。)

  • Expected future price level ↑ → workers and firms raise wages and prices now → costs ↑ → SRAS shifts left. (预期未来物价上升 → 现在先提高工资和价格 → 成本上升 → SRAS 左移。)

  • Adjustment to past expectation errors:

    • If actual price level > previously expected → wages eventually catch up ↑ → SRAS 左移。
    • If actual price level < expected → wages eventually fall → SRAS 右移。
  • Prices of important natural resources (e.g. oil):

    • Oil price ↑ unexpectedly → energy cost ↑ → negative supply shock → SRAS 左移。
    • Oil price ↓ → cost ↓ → SRAS 右移。
  • Tax and regulation changes that alter production cost:

    • Lower income or payroll taxes on labor → effective labor cost ↓ → SRAS 右移。
    • Higher cost-type taxes or stricter regulations → SRAS 左移。

2.3 Price Level vs. SRAS Shift(价格水平变化与 SRAS 平移)

  • Change in overall price level with unchanged costs → movement along SRAS (A → B). (在成本不变的情况下,价格水平变化只会沿 SRAS 移动。)
  • Change in costs, productivity, expectations, or resource prices → SRAS shifts (A → C). (成本、生产率、预期或资源价格等发生变化 → 整条 SRAS 曲线平移。)

2.4 Practice Mapping: SRAS Questions(对应练习题的 SRAS 分析)

  • Increase in productivity → SRAS shifts right. (生产率提高 → SRAS 右移。)

  • Decrease in cost of energy → SRAS shifts right. (能源成本下降 → SRAS 右移。)

  • Decrease in income tax on labor → labor cost ↓ → SRAS shifts right. (劳动所得税下降 → 用工成本降低 → SRAS 右移。)

  • In SRAS graph:

    • A→B: price level ↑ on same SRAS (movement).
    • A→C: SRAS₂ right of SRAS₁ (cost/productivity change).

3. Long-Run Aggregate Supply (LRAS) & Potential GDP(长期总供给与潜在 GDP)

3.1 LRAS Definition: Vertical Curve(定义:垂直曲线)

  • LRAS is vertical at potential GDP (full-employment output). (LRAS 在潜在 GDP 水平处是一条垂直线,对应充分就业产出。)
  • In the long run, wages and prices fully adjust; real GDP is determined by resources and technology, not by price level. (长期中工资与价格完全调整,产出由资源与技术决定,而不是由物价决定。)

3.2 Determinants of LRAS(LRAS 的决定因素)

  • Increase in labor force or population → LRAS shifts right. (劳动力或人口增加 → LRAS 右移。)
  • Increase in capital stock (physical & human capital) → LRAS shifts right. (物质资本与人力资本增加 → LRAS 右移。)
  • Technological change → higher productivity → LRAS shifts right. (技术进步 → 生产率提高 → LRAS 右移。)
  • A higher price level alone does not move LRAS. (单纯物价水平上升不会改变 LRAS 位置。)

3.3 LRAS and SRAS Together(LRAS 与 SRAS 的联动)

  • Factors like labor, capital, technology shift both LRAS and SRAS to the right over time. (劳动力、资本与技术等长期因素会同时推动 LRAS 与 SRAS 向右移动。)
  • Pure cost shocks (e.g. oil price spike) affect SRAS only, leaving LRAS unchanged. (如油价冲击等成本冲击只改变 SRAS,不改变 LRAS。)

4. Macroeconomic Equilibrium: Short Run vs Long Run(宏观均衡:短期与长期)

4.1 Long-Run Macroeconomic Equilibrium(长期宏观均衡)

  • Occurs where AD, SRAS, and LRAS intersect at the same point. (AD、SRAS 与 LRAS 三条曲线交于一点时,经济处于长期宏观均衡。)
  • Real GDP = potential GDP; unemployment at natural rate (only frictional & structural). (实际 GDP 等于潜在 GDP,失业率处于自然失业率水平。)

4.2 Short-Run Equilibrium(短期均衡)

  • Given LRAS, intersection of AD and current SRAS determines short-run equilibrium price level and real GDP. (在给定 LRAS 下,AD 与 SRAS 的交点给出短期的价格水平与实际产出。)
  • Short-run GDP may be below, at, or above potential GDP. (短期内的实际 GDP 可能低于、等于或高于潜在 GDP。)

4.3 Recession from AD Decrease(AD 减少导致的衰退)

  • AD shifts left (AD₁→AD₂) due to lower I, C, G, or NX. (因投资、消费、政府购买或净出口减少,AD 左移。)
  • Short run: new intersection at lower real GDP and slightly lower price level → recession (point B). (短期:交点移动到较低的 GDP 和略低的物价 → 经济衰退。)
  • Over time, high unemployment and lower-than-expected prices push wages and other costs down → SRAS shifts right (SRAS₁→SRAS₂). (失业高企且物价低于预期 → 工资和成本逐步下降 → SRAS 右移。)
  • Long run: economy returns to potential GDP on LRAS with even lower price level (point C). (长期:在更低的价格水平下回到潜在 GDP,实现新的长期均衡。)

4.4 Expansion from AD Increase(AD 增加导致的扩张)

  • AD shifts right (AD₁→AD₂) due to higher I, C, G, or NX. (投资、消费、政府购买或净出口增加 → AD 右移。)
  • Short run: real GDP rises above potential, price level ↑ (point B) → economic boom. (短期:实际产出高于潜在水平,物价上升 → 扩张期。)
  • Tight labor market, higher-than-expected prices → wages and costs rise → SRAS shifts left (SRAS₁→SRAS₂). (劳动力紧张且物价高于预期 → 工资和成本上升 → SRAS 左移。)
  • Long run: GDP falls back to potential on LRAS with higher price level (point C). (长期:实际 GDP 回落到潜在 GDP,但价格水平永久性提高。)

4.5 Supply Shock and Stagflation(供给冲击与滞涨)

  • Negative supply shock (e.g. oil price spike) → SRAS shifts left (SRAS₁→SRAS₂). (负向供给冲击,如油价大涨 → SRAS 左移。)
  • Short run: higher price level + lower real GDP (stagflation). (短期:物价上涨且产出下降 → 滞涨。)
  • Over time, recession reduces wages and costs → SRAS slowly shifts back right toward SRAS₁. (随着衰退持续,工资和成本下降 → SRAS 逐步右移回原位。)
  • Government could instead use AD-shifting policies (fiscal/monetary) to close output gap faster but at cost of permanently higher prices. (政府也可通过财政或货币政策右移 AD 更快弥补产出缺口,但代价是更高的长期物价水平。)

5. Dynamic AD–AS Model(动态 AD–AS 模型)

5.1 Why We Need a Dynamic Model(为什么需要动态模型)

  • Basic static model wrongly implies recessions always lower price level, which conflicts with modern experience of persistent inflation. (静态模型往往预测“衰退=物价下降”,与现代持续通胀的现实不符。)
  • Real economies continuously grow (potential GDP ↑) and usually face ongoing inflation. (现实经济中潜在 GDP 持续增长,物价通常持续缓慢上涨。)

5.2 Typical “Normal Year” Dynamics(“一般年份”的动态过程)

  • LRAS shifts right each year as labor, capital, and technology grow (LRAS₁→LRAS₂). (劳动、资本和技术进步使 LRAS 每年向右移动。)
  • SRAS also shifts right with LRAS, because more capacity allows more short-run supply. (SRAS 随产能提升一起右移。)
  • AD normally shifts right as C, I, G, and NX tend to rise with income and population. (随着收入和人口增加,C、I、G、NX 一般也上升,使 AD 右移。)
  • If AD, SRAS, and LRAS all shift right “roughly in step”, real GDP grows while price level stays roughly stable (no significant inflation). (若三条曲线大致同步右移,实际 GDP 增长而物价大致稳定。)

5.3 When Growth Rates Differ(曲线移动速度不同的情况)

  • AD grows faster than LRAS/SRAS → demand-pull inflation (price level ↑ faster). (AD 右移速度快于 LRAS/SRAS → 需求拉动型通胀。)
  • AD grows slower or shifts left while LRAS keeps growing → recession with disinflation or mild deflation. (AD 右移较慢甚至左移,而 LRAS 继续右移 → 经济增长放缓或衰退,并伴随通胀放缓甚至通缩。)

6. Graph Interpretation & Exam Strategy(图形理解与考试技巧)

6.1 Identifying Long-Run vs Short-Run Equilibrium Points(识别长期与短期均衡点)

  • Long-run equilibrium: intersection of AD, SRAS, and LRAS (e.g. point C on combined graph). (长期均衡:AD、SRAS、LRAS 三线交点。)
  • Short-run equilibrium after AD change: intersection of new AD with old SRAS (e.g. A→B). (AD 变化后与原 SRAS 的交点为短期均衡。)
  • Eventual long-run equilibrium: after SRAS has shifted to restore GDP to LRAS. (长期中 SRAS 调整回潜在 GDP 所在的点。)

6.2 AD & SRAS Movement vs Shift “Rules of Thumb”(AD 与 SRAS 点移动和曲线平移口诀)

  • AD:

    • “Price level only” → movement along AD.
    • “Anything changing C, I, G, NX” → AD shift. (AD:只提物价 → 沿曲线移动;涉及 C、I、G、NX → 曲线平移。)
  • SRAS:

    • “Price level only” → movement along SRAS.
    • “Costs, productivity, expectations, resource prices, taxes” → SRAS shift. (SRAS:只提物价 → 沿曲线移动;成本、生产率、预期、资源价格、成本型税收 → 曲线平移。)

6.3 Linking Practice Questions to Graphs(把练习题与图像对应)

  • AD practice: identify which factor changes (G、T、i、foreign income、exchange rate、price level) and then draw movement or shift. (在 AD 练习中先找出变化因素,再决定是沿曲线移动还是曲线平移。)

  • LRAS practice: focus on changes in labor, capital, technology vs pure price changes. (LRAS 题目集中在劳动、资本、技术等长期因素。)

  • SRAS practice: connect productivity, energy cost, taxes, resource shocks to right/left shifts. (SRAS 题目则紧扣生产率、能源成本、税收和供给冲击。)

  • Multi-point graphs (A, B, C, D):

    • Only points on LRAS can be long-run equilibria.
    • Points where AD & SRAS intersect off LRAS are short-run equilibria. (多点图形中:在 LRAS 上且与 AD、SRAS 相交的是长期均衡,其余交点是短期均衡。)

6.4 One-Sentence Summary(一句话总结)

  • The AD–AS framework links spending (AD), production capacity and costs (SRAS & LRAS), and price level to explain how economies move through recessions, expansions, and long-run growth. (AD–AS 框架把“需求支出(AD)”“生产能力与成本(SRAS/LRAS)”和“物价水平”联系起来,用来解释经济如何在衰退、扩张与长期增长之间不断调整。)